In ancient societies seas and rivers played an important role in spreading of the civilizations. In Japan seas and oceans have remained important even until now. The role of rivers in Japan, however, was gradually changed to that in irrigation and drinking, and its industrial importance has now become recognized in modern ages.
There are two reasons for rivers retreating from the means of spreading of the civilization.
1) Basins formed by one river system became complete as the space of life but lost their integration that had existed by means of a river. This was brought about by the new method of reclamation that came from China: For the management of paddy-field with rivers being the source of water supply it was necessary for rivers to be divided into small parts one system by one system.
2) By using new method of reclamation powerful families in the provinces developed the space of life. As a result consanguineal societies were changed into territorial societies. Overland routes took the place of waterways as means of contact among many territorial societies formed in one water system. And rivers lost their importance as traffic routes and became important as the source of water supply (water for irrigaition).
The purpose of this article is to make clear the history of the roles of such river systems, taking an example from Sumiyoshi Shrine that used to possess a large ancient dominion on the Hyogo River. As Sumyoshi Shrine was a tutelary god, its domain was on the Bay of Osaka (that was) next to the Inland Sea of Seto. However, by forming a connection with the Imperial Court of Yamato the shrine widened its domain along the river system and gained a vast area including woods and river valley inland. Because it was not originally the god of agriculture or forestry, it began to draw back when it lost the protection of the Imperial Court of Yamato, and finally retreated to the sea-side place which it had first possessed. The shrines that lost even their first domains have maintained only the buildings in which the faith in the gods of navigation and diplomacy is slightly kept.

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The concept of “modes of life” was introduced into geography simultaneously with the biological method of study. F. Ratzel had already referred to it as “Lebensform”. However, it was Vidal de la Blache who added to this “life form” a historical meaning and applied it to human activities. After him, it has been one of the basic concept for the French School of Geography. It may be compared with “Landschaft” (landscape) of German geographers. The concept of “Landschaft” is, in a sense, related to visual method of study, while “modes of life” refers to functional method.
During the Classical Period of the French School, “modes of life” was used as synthetic and descriptive concept, but the nature of it was not discussed very much. In the New Period of the French School (after 1930's), analytic and systematic tendencies have become influential. So that “regions” are considered as political and economic systems. Then, “modes of life” is expected to be analytical concept. After 1940's, French geographers took adequate considerations in this concept.
We examined some books and articles which comment on this concept. The authors are: J. Gottmann, M. Sorre, A. Gibert, M. Le Lannou, P. George, P. Gourou, D. Faucher, and G. Friedmann. Among them, M. Sorre's opinion is the most comprehensive. He tries to conform the classical meaning of this concept to geographical reality, defining it as “whole of practices consolidated by tradition” or “assemblages of technics”. As for rural modes of life, A. Cholley's article on agricultural structure and rural economy is the most substantial, although he does not use the term “modes of life.
On the other hand, some geographers criticize those who think much of this concept. P. George is the representative among them. He insists that the mode of life is not a cause but a result, so that, it can not explain any phenomenon. We must neèds consider economic and social structure of modern society. To pursue complete description is not so important, but to get a satisfactory explanation by “economic and social structure” is essentially important.
At any rate, M. Sorre makes researches in “modes of life” rather inductively, while P. George investigates it deductively. Geographical explanation is not a simple description nor a mechanical formulation. We may follow the definition by M. Sorre, but the historical point of view must not be neglected. Applying the concept. of “modes of life”, we must consider the power of human activities which can organize the spacial system of regions. We must not use the coucept as a formal term. In short, we must realize the geographical spirit of the French School which develeped the concept.

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In China there live some 35, 000, 000 (or 35 million) minor race people. They occupy only 60.6% of the total Chinese population. Yet the total area they occupy is 50% of the land, frontier regeons being included.
In the past these minor races were incessantly oppressed by the Chinese (Hans) that have absolute majority in population and predominating economical power. And there were some minor races in the North-Western area that turned their back to China Proper. The minor races that inhabited the South-Eastern mountain range were separted into small groups, driven into the mountains by the Hans that (historically) toward the South, and led a primitive life isolated from the outer world. One can sea Shin-chang as an example of such region. This area was once a Chinese domain. Howevr, it was independent from China except at the times of strong dynasties.
At the close of the 19th century when Ching Dynasty grew weaker, they were exposed to Russian influence on the north and British (influence) on the south. And until People's Republic of China was formed, they had been only a nominal domain of China; They independently formed diplomatic and economic connections with Russia, and it was much easier for them to go to Russia than to China Proper. However, there have occurred great changes during recent 10 years. Not only roads but also railways are under construction that connect them with China in many ways. It is somewhat similar to the relation between the Soviet Middle Asia and Russia.
Roads and railways are being steadily built in the southeastern mountainous region. As various resources deposited here are developed, the policy is taken to make better the living standard of the races living here. China gives letters to the races that have no letters and propagates the songs that praise Peking by means of their traditional folk songs and folk dances. It is somewhat similar to the relation between the Soviet Polar Regins and Russia.
Besides these, Mohammedans are regarded as one nation. This is because, although they speak Chinese, their manners and customes that their religion produced build up a unique social system. The Chinese esteem such uniqueness and activate their traditional activities, while they made an autonomous region on the northwest and are trying to move the Mohammedans living in big cities to this region in order to develop this underdeveloped region. Isn't this similar to Jews' Autonomous Region in the Soviet Union?
Now the Chinese do not compulsorily adapt minor races to their way of life, which they used to do in the past. At present they esteem their autonomy. The Chinese need their cooperation in order to make the Chinese domain a strongly unified body, to make the border lines clear that used to be obscure, and to develop the People's Republic of China.
Gradwally the social orders of People's China will covre the whole domain.

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