In the last decade, alternatives have been proposed to the “Darwinian” paradigm in cartography, which has concentrated its attention on the chorometric and planimetric accuracy of maps. This article examines structural and iconographical analysis in map studies, which can be of great help in understanding the indigenous structure of geographical knowledge.
The Mapamundi of Guaman Poma, inserted in his “Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno”, has a title that would imply necessity of both traditional and alternative approaches. The title “Mapamundi de las Indias” shows that it depicted the extent of the Viceroyalty of Peru in the early seventeenth century. But the marginal notes of the Mapamundi tell us that the territory of Tawantinsuyo, or the so-called Inca Empire, is also depicted.
In the third chapter, the Mapamundi is examined as an Andean regional map in the traditional scheme. The identification of 17 ports and 25 towns shows that their distribution on the Mapamundi does not coincide with that of the modern scaled map. A river that flows leftward in the Mapamundi is designated as Marañón or the Amazon, the Orinoco and the Magdalena. The “caminos reals” which had connected primary colonial towns from Bogotá to Santiago de Chile connect only eight towns on the Mapamundi, although all the towns depicted in the Mapamundi were situated on the “caminos reals”. Therefore Poma's Mapamundi completely lacks the minimum criteria of accuracy that a contemporary regional map should have.
In fourth chapter, the Mapamundi is examined according to an alternative scheme to extract the cognitive structure of Andean space. In spite of its resemblance to the format of European medieval mapamundi, Poma's Mapamundi reveals the indigenous structure of Andean space. Two diagonal lines divide the Mapamundi into four quarters. Each of them corresponds to the four suyos or quarters of the Inca Empire, that is, Chinchay-suyo, Colla-suyo, Ande-suyo and Conde-suyo. The quadripartitional structure of space corresponds to the Andean vertical dichotomy, hanan (above) vs. hurin (below). This vertical dualism is based on the socio-political structure as well as spatial structure of Cuzco, the capital of the Inca Empire. Needless to say, Cuzco (the center) and the four suyos constituted the quintipartitional structue of Andean space.
These structures of Andean space were applied to Poma's recognitional model for the mundial monarchy that was under the reign of the Spanish king. In his scheme, the kingdom of the Indias is located in the lower half of the world, although it is depicted in the upper half of the “Pontificial Mundo”. The former location was indicated by the Spaniard invasion in Tawantinsuyo.
The multidimensional structure of Andean space, which consists of vertical dualism (hanan vs. hurin), center-peripheral structure, and quadri and quinti-partitional systems, is extracted by structural analysis of Poma's literary and visual text. The Mapamundi is divided into two sections by the river system. The upper half beyond the river system is filled with non-Andean icons, for example griffins, sirens, or unicorns. Indias would be classfied into three spheres, that is, the Andes, the selva or montana, and the other imaginary mountainous land along the Mar del Norte or the Atlantic Coast. Figure 11 shows the classification of the Indias in Poma's Mapamundi and its iconographic structure. Poma's geographical knowledge beyond his native land is so vague that Guinea, the land of black people or Africa, is located next to Panama in his chronicle.

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There are two fields of study in the geography of fisheries. One is the study of fishing villages (fishing communities), and the other is the study of fishing grounds. Japanese geographers, however, have focused largely on the study of fishing villages and have seldom researched fishing grounds, as it is difficult to grasp the whole of the marine environment. But the fishing ground is the foundation on which the fishing village is built and maintained. And the character of the fishing village is decided by the character of its fishing ground. Therefore both fishing village and fishing ground have to be considered as a whole. In field research, the author used an ecological method of collecting data by direct observation of fishing activities on the sea. It is thought this method enables not only the study of fishing ground use, but also ecological analysis of the fishing village which uses those fishing grounds.
In this study, the author attempts first to review ecological studies of the use of fishing grounds in order to carry out the ecological study on the geography of fisheries in the future. The results are as follows:
1. In terms of the time-use pattern of the fishing ground, data on daily, monthly, seasonal, and annual cycles must be collected according to the fishing activity.
2. In terms of the space-use pattern of the fishing ground, a three-dimensional space……the surface, the water, and the sea bottom……must be considered as an integrated space.
3. The ecological method can be applied both to inshore and inland water environments and to various fishing methods……long-line fishing, hard-line fishing, small scale net fishing, diving, and so on.

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