It has been thought in previous studies that inland navigation had declined in modern times. The author differs with this idea. That is to say, we can say that the navigation has progressed at least in the field of ko-unso (reception and distribution) in modern cities.
The purpose of this article is to clarify the function navigation played in urban transportation, in parallel with the progress of other forms of transport and modern industries. The research field for this article is Tokyo, which was one of the most developed cities in modern Japan.
Intra-urban navigation in the Tokyo area evolved chiefly as traffic by barges along the Sumida River, Tokyo Port and canals which were built early in the Edo Period, e. g. Onagi River, Kanda River, Nihonbashi River, etc.
Intra-urban navigation has several characteristics: namely, transshipment, reception and distribution. Taking this into consideration, the author classifies intra-urban navigation into four types for investigation. They are:
1. Transportation connected with marine transportation: Most of the ocean-going ships could not come into direct contact with the shore before World War II. Therefore, when freight from ocean-going ships came into and out of the city, barge transportation was indispensable. This type was the main stream of intra-urban navigation ever since Edo Period.
2. Transportation connected with railway transportation: This type of navigation arose in modern times. Stations dealing with freight opened near the riverfront, where freight carried from the railwey was transferred to barges.
The quantity of freight carried by this type of navigation was about 45% of the total amount which was dealt with at eight stations in Tokyo City.
3. Transportation linked straight to the hinterland transshipment: The ships of this type came into direct contact with the shore. There were two categories: inland navigation originating from Tokyo through the Naka River, Ara River, Tone River, etc., and transportation by steam and sail boats around Tokyo Bay. In the Edo Period, transport items were crops, sea products, soy, etc., but these changed gradually to industrial items in modern times.
4. Reciprocal tranport within the city, among each area: This type increased with the expansion of the urban area. It was intra-urban transport between factories or storehouses built in the areas which had many canals, e. g. Fukagawa-ku, Honjo-ku. It seems that the freight volume was twice as much as the total coming into and out of the city.
Judging from the above, intra-urban navigation played a great part in transport of freight in the city.
The transported items of intra-urban navigation in modern times were rice, wood, coal, gravel, chemical manure, steel, etc., Above all, a large amount of coal as fuel for industry was transported during modern times, particularly from the Taisho Era to early Showa. Intra-urban navigational tranport played an important role in the location of factories as well as in the establishment of land-use zoning in city planning.

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In Japan mountains have been sacred areas since ancient times. They have been not only objects of worship, but also fields of ascetic mountaineering by shugenja, ascetics of the shugendo sect. Research, however, on these“sacred mountain areas”including geographical research has hardly been conducted.
The author believes that we can study them from three viewpoints: landscape, behavior and recognition. This article focuses on imagery of these areas recognized by shugenja, and investigates their formation with relation to landscape, mountaineering behavior and previous imagery.
The field of the case study is the Omine Mountains that reach from Nara to Wakayama prefecture. They are representative of sacred mountain areas in Japan, and are believed to have had 75 sacred places called“nabiki”at one time. We call this recognition“the 75-sacred-place view”, and attempt to elucidate the time and details of its formation. The principal materials analysed are two lists of 75 sacred places' names.
The findings obtained are as follows:
1. The older type of list came into being at the beginning of the 19th century, and was revised into the newer one at the end of it.
2. The number 75 comes from the 75-ri view (1 ri is equivalent to about 4km) toward Omine.
3. The older list includes not only contemporary sites of small shrines dedicated to kongo-doji (small good in the shugendo, sect) and ritual spots, but also quite a few traditional place names, which are quoted from the previous list of 42 shuku (literally ascetic huts, as it were, sacred places) and the medieval list of holy sites.
4. The newer list is closer to the actual ritual spots, compared with the older one.
5. It can be said that the lists show an ideal imagery of ritual spots.
The 75-sacred-place view formed as mentioned above, however, hasn't had much influence on landscape and mountaineering behavior, because not all 75 locations have been definite, nor have ritual spots been thoroughly regulated by the list at present. The reason is supposedly that essentially for ascetic mountaineering, individual spots and their number are less important than the sacred mountain area as a whole. It may also have its roots in the fact that ritual spots are almost so natural that passersby have difficulty in recognizing their importance, in contrast to the Japanese pilgrimage to 88 or 33 holy places.
It seems that the 75-sacred-place view has had more significance for the development of recognition of Omine by secular people as well as shugenja.

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In geography a body of migration studies has accumulated, and especially since 1970's, examinations of the problems and viewpoints of the research have been made. In Japan, however, geographers have hardly tried to investigate the general framework and problems in migration study. The author thinks this is because in this country they were not sensitive to findings made by foreign geographers. In addition, migration research in other fields of social sciences has not been introduced and referred to positively.
In this review, the author attempts to put problems and viewpoints of the research topic in order, by classifying the existing literature. In the first place, he gives attention to three aspects of migration; migrant, environment surrounding him/her and migration flows. These are considered to build up a migration mechanism as a whole, so it is important for us to study them and their interrelationships.
(1) Migrant: A potential migrant has some attributes and he/she experiences the decision-making process of migration. Generally, the attributes are grouped into three: those relating to (a) age and life cycle, (b) socio-economic status, and (c) physical and mental characteristics. A potential migrant makes the decision to move/migrate or stay, based on various attributes as his/her own possessions and background. These attributes can change after migration. When the first motivation to migrate is given to the potential migrant in the decision-making process, then he/she examines some points about migration, e. g., place utility of destination, possibility of his/her status promotion, risk and cost of migration, etc.
(2) Environment: The environment around this potential migrant could have some effects on his/her attributes and gives him/her information. Some attributes of origin/ destination regions, such as quality of life or standard of living also could influence the migrant there. In some cases, someone or some human group at the destination may offer attractive information. Especially, in developing countries or regions, such information, though sometimes it may be time-lagged or biased, is essential to chain migrants.
(3) Migration Flows: Quantitative geographers are willing to use physical characteristics of migration flows as variables in their quantitative models. Generally, they are specifically shown as number of migrants, distances and directions of flows, pairs of origin and destination, and velocities of flows. For the last three decades, models of spatial interaction have developed and more and more factors, irrespective of economic or social, have been adopted. On the other hand, qualitative characteristics or factors of migration flows, rather than quantitative ones, must be taken into consideration. Aims, causes and forms of the flows, and the independence or voluntariness of migrants, are such examples. But, at any rate, it is troublesome that studies or analyses of migration flows are severely constrained by availability of data.
In the geographical study of migration, the three aspects mentioned are vital, but geographers also must throw light on the structure of phases of migration at various scales, and must pursue the analysis of many kinds of migration flows in varied phases.
Typology of migration is also very important. One of the central problems of the typological investigation of migration is which criteria to use. The author has examined previous studies concerned with this problem, and presents three types of criteria which seem appropriate. They are (1) spatial and regional criteria, (2) temporal and periodical criteria, and (3) criteria which relate to opportunity and form of migration.
As other important topics of migration study, the author lists (1) varied social and economic backgrounds of the time and (2) difference between micro and macro scales of phases of migration.

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