Friedrich Ratzel wrote several papers (1878, 1879, 1895b, and 1895c) and book reviews (1881, 1887, 1894, 1895a, and 1897) relating to Japan, and during 1889-1902 at Reipzig University, he gave four lectures on the world outside Europe, including Japan (Fig. 1.). His notes (manuscripts and materials) for those lectures, which are listed in Tab. 1. A and B, have been preserved in the Archives of Geography, Institute of Regional Studies (Geographische Zentralbibliothek/Archiv für Geographie, Institüt für Länderkunde), Leipzig.
The examination of his writings revealed Ratzel's discourse on Japan, which has never been investigated by geographers, in connection with his extensive geographical work. This paper makes it clear that:
A) Ratzel was interested in Japan and maintained study and a material collection throughout his academic career (Tab. 2).
B) At the watershed of 1895 when Japan won the Sino-Japanese War, his negative evaluation of Japan turned to a positive one. Parallel with this change, his research-focus in Japan itself was transferred, that is, his ethnographical and anthropological study shifted to the political geography of Japan as an island empire.
C) In his writings before 1895, he pointed out that 1) the physical and mental features of the residents of the Japanese Islands were inferior to those of Europeans, 2)the strange social class system, which, essentially, the Meiji Restoration did not alter at all, and 3) the mysterious pluralistic jurisdiction among East Asian countries, which could easily cause a political dispute. Ratzel's sense of values with reference to European culture and his contempt for an uncivilized race in East Asia were obvious.
D) With Japan's defeat of China, Ratzel realized the characteristics of a land of islands and a marine nation, which were common to England. After revisions and rearrangement (Tab. 3.), his discussion of the political geography of islands (1895c) was publishedas the chapter of ‘Islands (Inseln)’ in “Politische Geographie” (1897). Ratzel expected that Japan would follow the achievements of England in the near future. The most important reason why he changed his evaluation was that Japanese could master Western culture, technology, and social and political systems within a short term.
E) According to Ratzel, because the Japanese were a marine nation with high learning-ability and followed Europe, they succeeded in the reexpansion of marine transport over the ocean, and exceeded thier neighbors China and Korea-China used to be accompanied by Japan and Korea respectively, in culture as well as politics.
F) Ratzel's continuing study of Japan could be a synthetic chorography, which describes and explains a peculiar combination between a land of islands in the Pacific Ocean and a marine nation with high learning-ability. The possiblity that he preparedthe publication of “Japan” can not be denied.

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The socio-economic conditions of the 1980s and early 1990s brought about a high concentration of capital and decision-making functions in the central area of Tokyo. This trend led to a shortage of office spaces. To make up for this, a number of office building were constructed, but that has triggered social problems, for example an increase on office vacancies.
In examining those problems, viewing offices as facilities is important, but this view has not been fully considered in previous studies of office location in Japan. In addition, it is important to consider a change of the urban structure caused by the agglomeration of offices.
In this article, the author attempts to analyze the role of office supply in attracting office functions and promoting the growth of business districts in the Tokyo metropolitan area, by considering the trends in office development, office markets and the location of office functions in 1980s and early 1990s. The following summarizes the main results:
In this metropolitan area, many office spaces were constructed in the core area and the sub-core, though office development occourred in the suburbs too.
The construction of large office buildings requires ample funds and management ability, and such buildings have often been built in specific areas: the core, the sub-core and in some of the peripheral wards. They were developed by joint enterprises of private developers and the public sector. The trend in office facilities was changed by the emerqence of high technology buildings, smart-buildings, in the mid 1980s. Office facilities have had high value added and have differentiated more and more.
Office markets are measured by rental fees and the rental ratio. The level of rental fees was affected by the increase of‘smart-buildings’, Furthermore, land values caused rises in fees during the time of the most overheated real estate markets. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the time of the bubble economy, there was a regional difference in the level of rental fees. The highest level was in the Marunouchi-Ohtemachi district in the core, and lower in the sub-core, peripheral wards, and peripheral cities respectively. But this difference has been abolished since the collapse of the boom. On the other hand, the trend in the rental ratio of office spaces has not been the same trend as fees. Those ratios have declined at the areas where many large buildings were constructed. Otherwise, some of peripheral cities have maintained high rates. Those cities have stable office demand and a better balance of demand and supply than the core.
The accumulation of offices has been proceeding not only in the core and the subcore, but in the suburbs. This accumulation is more remarkable in the former. The growth of peripheral cities as business centers was covered up by the core and the subcore. The service sector, particular information service sector offices have increased remarkably. Offices spaces in the suburbs have been moved into by branch offices and back offices which have their headquarters in the core and need other smaller spaces, and the relocation of headquarters from the core to the suburbs was not dramatic. Office developers planed strategies of the targets of attracting branch offices and back offices, have contributed to the growth of peripheral cities.
From the view of office supply, the trends in office location in the metropolitan area fundamentally have been centripetal. The competition in office developments in the 1980s and early 1990s has promoted the growth of the core and the sub-core. On the other hand, peripheral cities have been growing slowly as business districts.

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The author made a review of feral animals in Australia, from a cultural-geographic viewpoint.
European people went on voyages to find new colonies from the 15th to the 19th centuries. They had a custom of keeping livestock on board ship as food provisions. Consequently pigs, goats, cattle, horses and donkeys, etc. were introduced to new colonies a long with traditional European ways of keeping and releasing livestock.
It was a common practice in the early days of settlement to let livestock roam or have free range so as to forage for food. In the 19th century, sealers and whalers released livestock such as pigs and goats on islands as food. As a result, some of these animals formed viable breeding colonies in the wild. Feral livestock populations established quickly and they were widely spread in Australia before the beginning of this century.
However, the spread of feral animals like feral pigs, goats, horses, cattle, donkeys, water buffaloes and camels etc. caused changes in the biological environment. The majority of native Australian land mammals are marsupials. The intrusion of these exotic species appears to be altering the composition of species in Australia and is causing significant ecological and environmental change.
Today feral animals are generally considered to be pests, because these animals damage agriculture and the native fauna and flora. However some discussion is necessary as follows:
1) Feral animals are a‘product’of human culture.
2) In case we consider feral animals as one example of environmental problems, we should not criticize traditional ways of keeping and releasing of livestock in a simplistic way.
3) We need to collect information on feral animals and introduce it widely through environmental education. We should consider this problem as a good lesson for the future.

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Recently, the metropolitan areas and their central cities are leading the service economy. The tertial industry is evident in Japanease cities. There are many studies related to the structural change of the metropolitan areas in Japan. But little attention has been given to the direct relationship between the tertiary industrialization and the structural change of the metropolitan areas. The purpose of this paper is to explain that relationship in the Osaka metropolitan area in 1975, 1985 and 1988. Industrial sectors selected for this study as follows; manufacture, constructing, transportation, finance, real estate, sales, services, information, and households (residential population). The results of this analysis are as follows:
In particular, financial, sevices and information sectors in the tertiary economy lead to a change in the input-output structure (See tabs. 2-3). MDS shows that there are strong relationships between the financial sector and the other eight sectors (See figs. 5-6). Also we could identify the three different groups; (1) manufacture, transportation and construction, (2) services, sales, real estate, information, and households; and (3) finance (See figs. 2-4).
MDS of spatial communality shows the change into the next three different groups: (1) manufacturing, transportation and construction; (2) finance, services, sales, real estate and information; and (3) households. The four sectors of services, sales, real estate and information in the second group are increasing in locational similarity to the financial sector (See fig. 9).
Three different groups in economic structure are explained by similarity or dissimilarity in their inter-sectoral locational relationships. That is the first group in economic structure has a locational dissimilarity in comparison with other sectors. The second group excluding households and the third group in economic structure have locational similarity. The difference between the second group and the third one is caused by tertiary industrialization, that is, the four sectors of services, sales, real estate and information are increasing their locational similarity to the financial sector from the spatial point of view.
Also, the first group in economic structure has a mixture of spatial inter-city input-output linkages in the Osaka metropolitan area. Financial, infomation, real estate, services and sales sectors have the possibility of spatial intra-city input-output linkages (See tabs. 6-7). The former (latter) case is because of the characteristic of locational dissimilarity (similarity) and strong economic linkages. Input-output structure of finance, infomation, realestate, services and sales sectors has equally developed in each city from 1975 to 1988. The balance of industrial development into each city to enhance its independent trends may have originated from the input-output structure of these five sectors.

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