The purpose of this study is to extract basic dimension of the urban system and their changes in Korea since 1960's. For the study, the R-mode factor analysis, the Q-mode cluster analysis, the coefficient of congruence analysis and the cross-sectional data analysis were adopted. The results from those analyses could make us to interpret the diffusion effects of urbanization from 1960 to 1980 in the Korean urban system complex. Therefore, we can accept this study which has mainly tested how the Korean urban system would change and what factor has brought the change in the system through the progress of urbanization.
For the R-moode factor analysis, 30 variables (Table 1.) were used at two points of time, 1966 and 1978. Eigenvalues over 1.0 were extracted for the factors and those factors had been performed the orthogonal varimax rotation. Successively, the rotated factor scores were used to calculate the Fuclidian distances and the weighted pair group averaging Q-mode cluster analyses were performed with those distance variables. Besides those works, the coefficients of congruence were calculated to identify the similarity of the urban system dimensions between 1966 and 1978. The results of those analyses had been compared each other. The conclusions of this study are as follows;
1. The two decades from 1960 to 1980 are the period of the fastest urbanization in Korea. 2. The Korean urban system changed and generated with this high pace of urbanization process. The basic urban system dimensions of 1966 are 1) Socio-economic basis and city hierarchical dimension, 2) educational, cultural and informational dimension, and 3) dimension of the growing force and vigor of cities. But in 1978, the basic dimensions of the Korean urban system are changed. They are composed of 1) manufacturing dimension, 2) socio-economic basis and city hierarchical dimension, and 3) educational, cultural and informational dimension. The cumulative variances with those three factors are 62% in 1966 and 63% in 1978. The results of cluster analyses give some fruitful instructions to overview the changes of Korean urban system dimensions. We can classify prominently developed cities as the special cities group (Seoul and Busan) and regional central cities group (Daegu, Incheon, Gwangju, Daej eon etc.) in the case of 1978.
3. The strongest factor on the Korean urbanization during the period of 1960' 1980 was the manufacturing, especially the export oriented and labor-intensive manufacturings which attracted many young cheap labor force from the agricultural countrysides. Other factors are historical, -fall of the feudal Lee dynasty, colonial era, separation of the country, Korean War, and five-year national developing plan, educational effects are the significant factors of the dramatic change of Korean urban system.
4. The great cities developed faster than the small cities, and the cities with the regional central functions, administration, manufacturing were also rapidly developed.
5. Urbanization in Korea was diffused selectively, so the areal differential growth was occurred in the urban system. In this period, the most highly developed region is the capital region, and the next highly developed region is the South-east coastal manufacturing belt. Most of the migrants moved to those two regions from rural areas. The share of Seoul and Busan for the total in-migration to all cities is over 60%, which shows indirectly that the main factor of urbanization in Korea is the manufacturing. Because, 50% of labor force to the national total in manufacturing is concentrated in Seoul and Busan.
6. The population concentration to cities in Korea was accelerated by the attractive and absorbable power of manufacturing, the different income levels between urban and rural, and the diffusion effects of urbanization.

View full abstract

After the Second World War, especially in the period of high growth of Japanese economy which was led by the development of manufacture, the monopolistic position of coal in Japanese energy markets gave place to petroleum. Because of this replacement, most of the coalmining industries have collapsed.
This study is an attempt to consider the industrial reorganization of the coal field district as one of the ways to solve its economic problems. As a case study, the author selects the Joban coal-field region and attempts to pursue its transformation into the new industrial development, the character of new industry, and the factors prescribing the new industrial character from the viewpoint of the labor force.
The Joban coal-field region is located in Iwaki City of Fukushima Prefecture, Kitaibaraki City, Takahagi City, and Juo Town of Ibaraki Prefecture. These cities and town are located at least 150 km north of Tokyo. In 1976, the coal-mining industry in the Joban coal-field has ended its 125 years of history. There were 125 coal mines and about 32, 000 coal miners in 1951, which was a peak year of its coal industry.
The following results were made clear by this study:
1. The modern industrialization of the Joban coal-field region was initiated in the 1930's by chemical fertilizer, rayon, and pulp industries that were located there due to the proximity to natural resources. But the chemical fertilizer industry based on Joban coal as the raw material did not develop sufficiently because of low quality of the coal. Hence, the greater part of its raw coal was brought from Hokkaido.
An administrative agency has aided in the later industrial development with two special acts. These acts made available the spacious lands to the new manufacturing plants. Consequently, two industrialized districts were formed in the Joban coal-field region. One is the Onahama coastal industrial district which mainly consists of equipment type, chemical industries, and large-scale factories. The other is the inland industrial district which consists of the labor-intensive, small-scale factories. The latter district changed the pure coal-mining district to more diversified industrial district. This district is named the past coal-mining district.
2. Industrialization in the post coal-mining district was a result of action by the municipal authorities which during the economic crisis encouraged the new industries and the enterprises decentralizing from the Keihin industrial zone. Both industries depended on the national administration for the financial support. As a whole, these industrial development were included in the sphere of the Keihin industrial zone.
3. Industrialization in the post coal-mining district has two features. One is the timber and furniture industries represented by a joint corporation of a coal-mining company and a new company. The other is electric and electronic machine-parts industries relocated from the Keihin industrial zone. Most workers were recruited from the people of this district. Former coal-mining workers are now employed as manufactor lobers by timber and furniture industries. On the latter, the labor force is divided into two types. The surplus young workers after the completion of school are employed by the large-scale factories, and middle or old aged housewife workers are employed by the small-scale factories. Housewife workers enter the labor market, to help their husbands who lost their works when the coal-industry failed or were reduced their income by 25 percent due to re-employment in small industries.
4. Since the purpose of work in the coal mine was chiefly to mine coal, in essence it was manual labor operating simple machines. By changing coal-mining labor to manufacture labor, the work content became more complex and sophisticated. But fundamentally, the character of manual labor with machines remained unchanged.

View full abstract

The typical Japanese farm is commonly thought to be very small and intensively cultivated. This image is quite true, but Japan does have another type of farming based on comparatively larger units of acreage. Though the number of these farms is small at present, it has been increasing year by year.
This article has two purposes: the first is to present the regional distribution of large farms in Japan, and the second is to explain clearly the regional structure of land use management. The data for farm size by the unit of prefectures were obtained from the Agricultural Census of Japan published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery. It would be well to notice that a farm is considered here as a unit of operation and not of ownership, although the both have been regarded almost as the same since the farm land ownership reformation after World War II.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery gives the qualification as a farm household to the household which manages more than 0.1 hectare of agricultural land in Eastern Japan within the eastward prefectures from Toyama, Niigata, Gunma, Saitama, Ibaraki and Chiba, and more than 0.05 hectare in Western Japan within the westward prefectures from Ishikawa, Gifu, Nagano, Yamanashi and Tokyo.
As Hokkaido has a cool summer and a short history of agriculture, the farm size here is exceptionally larger than the other Japanese prefectures. The large farms of Hokkaido which operate more than 20 hectares are generally distributed in the eastern part of the island, where dairying, and the cultivation of beans, potatoes, dent corn and sugar beet are the main agricultural activities. Excluding the case of Hokkaido, the large farms of Japan which operate more than 5 hectares are distributed mostly in the northern prefectures of Honshu and partly in Kyushu Island such as Kumamoto prefecture. Located mostly on alluvial fans, diluvial terraces, the foot of volcanoes and drained lakes developed newly after World War II, they produce rice, fruits, milk, and other cash crops.
Now we classify the region of Japan into two groups: the outer zone and the inner zone. Hokkaido, the Tohoku districts, the northern Kanto districts, the Kyushu districts and Niigata prefecture belong to the outer zone. The other regions belong to the inner zone (Fig. 4). Recently the larger farms are gradually growing in number, while the small farms are declining. In Hokkaido this tendency is becoming pronounced, because the agriculturaly developed lands have been increasing, and because the willing farmers have been purchasing the farm lands sold by the households who have given up farming.
In the outer zone except Hokkaido the increase of large farms results from reclaiming the waste lands rather than from decrease of farm households. Though in the inner zone it is a general tendency that the decreasing rate of the farm households has been higher than that of the farm land, the average size of farms has risen only a slight degree : the large farms are still in a small minority. In addition it is recognized in metropolitan areas such as Keihin (Tokyo-Yokohama) that the farm size has been becoming smaller and smaller by the reason of the land conversion from farming to nonagricultural use.
The relation between the farm size and agricultural gross sales differs with regions. The large farm does not always get a high income, and the small farm does not always have a low income. Though the farms in the outer zone need a larger acreage of agricultural land than the inner zone, their agricultural sales do not always increase in proportion to the size of acreage, because the recent cultivation of paddies is legally restricted and the selling price of main products stays low.

View full abstract

The purpose of the present paper is to clarify the behaviour of the roughness length zo and the zero-plane displacement d against friction velocity and to explain the vertical wind profile within a canopy using introduced theoretical relationships between physical quantities.
Measurements were carried out at the heat and water balances observation field in the Environmental Research Center of the University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan. The field surface was covered by pasture grass (rye grass, Secale Cereale) with a height of 0.46m.
The observations under the near neutral condition show that mean values of zo and d increase with the growth of plant height h. The relations are expressed by z₀=0.065 h and d=0.401 h respectively. The value of z₀/(h-d)=0.109 is smaller than those found by many other canopies, for instance, 0.44 over wheat field, 0.26 over needle-leaned tree, 0.24 over bean field and 0.12 over corn field (Hayashi and Kotoda, 1980). It is noteworthy that the pasture canopy contributes less effectively to aerodynamical roughness than the other canopies.
Tall, flexible vegetations are more deformed with the increase of wind speed. Therefore, z₀ and d change in accordance with wind speed at a fully rough surface. Then z₀ increases slightly with the increase of the friction velocity u_* as follows (Fig. 6):
z₀=0.044 u_*+0.018
On the other hand d diminishes with the increase of friction velocity as follows (Fig. 7):
d=-0.361 u_*+0.288
This is attributed to the phenomena that the wind penetrates more into the canopy as the speed increases and that the aerodynamical surface, a level of no downward momentum flux, becomes lower. Under such conditions, tall vegetations are exposed more to the wind, and the canopy changes its aerodynamical roughness.
For the flat surface, the friction velocity u_* is in direct proportion to the wind speed uh. But for the pasture field, the friction velocity settles down at a value of u_*=0.370m/s and deviates from the linear relation between u and u* in the range of u_h_??_2.0m/s. The main cause for the deviation of the value of u_* is considered to be the difference in the shape of the canopy under such windy conditions (Fig. 8).
The relation between the momentum diffusivity KM and the friction velocity is expressed essentially by two straight lines as follows (Fig. 9):
K_M=0.093 u_* (u_*<0.3 m/s),
K_M=0.240 u_*-0.044 (u_*>0.3m/s) We can also recognize that the drag coefficient is independent of the friction velocity and the mean value of the drag coefficient C_D is 3.07×10^-2 at z=0.46 m, although the deviation is not small (Fig. 10).
For the purpose of verification of the theoretical relationships between the physical quantities within the canopy, a numerical solution of the wind profile is done and compared with the results of the field observation. Under near neutral condition the wind profile over the pasture canopy is represented by a logarithmic law. But in the canopy layer, the following relations are given:
τ=ρK_Mdu/dz
K_M=βζ₀^muh(1-ra)
where ζ₀ is the normalized roughness length, i.e. ζ₀=z₀/h, /h, τ the shearing stress, p the air density, C_d the drag coefficient of canopy element, a the leaf area density, and α, β and m are nondimensional constants, and r is the newly defined luxuriant length.

View full abstract