This paper shows statistical properties about the interannual variations of seasonal change of quasi-stationary ultra-long waves in the troposphere. Especially, interannual variations of the trough positions over the Far East region are expressed by means of the comPosit diagram of their seasonal movements. The data used in this study are 5-day mean height values at the 500 mb level which are defined at every 10° latitude and longitude intervals between 30°N and 60°N taking each longitudinal circles during the period from 1946 to 1975.
Short period variations which do not take part in the seasonal change of ultra-long waves are included in the variation of 5-day mean height field observed at the 500 mb level. Thus, these variations must be removed from the observed height for the purpose of this study. In this paper, the quasi-stationary ultra-long waves along longitudinal circles are represented by the following procedures. First, for each 5-day mean observed 500 mb height, the variations of the height along longitudinal circles are separated into Fourier harmonics by means of zonal harmonic analysis. Secondly, in order to remove the oscilations whose periods are shorter than semi-annual periods, a low-pass time filter method is applied to each time series of Fourier harmonics. Finally, the quasi-stationary ultra-long waves along longitudinal circles are obtained by composition of the filtered Fourier harmonics with the wave numbers of 1 through 4.
The normal seasonal change of the quaisi-stationary ultra-long wave along each longitudinal circle is illustrated in Fig. 2. The interannual variation of the seasonal change of the quasi-stationary ultra-long waves are expressed by calculating the standard deviation of the filtered 500 mb height for each 5-day mean for the period of 28 years from 1947 to 1974. Apparently, the interannual variation of the filtered 500 mb height is larger in the winter season than in the summer season. In Fig. 4, it is shown by the distribution map of the standard deviation in the winter season that the interannual variations are relatively larger in higher latitude than in the lower latitude. In particular, the maxima of standard deviations are found over the Aleutian region, the Baffin island, and the Scandinavia peninsula.
Around the Far East, the interannual variations of the trough positions are scattered within the range of 30° difference in longitude at 30°N in each seasons. On the other hand, they are scattered within the range of 90° difference in longitude at 50°N in the summer season (Fig. 5). Furthermore, it has been found that the trough positions at 50° N are closely connected with the 500 mb height over the Aleutian region. When the 500 mb height values over the Aleutian region show positive anomally from normal height, the trough positions over the Far East region displace to the west. On the contrary, when the values show negative anomally from normal height, the trough positions displace to the east (Fig. 6).
As a result, since the 500 mb height is strongly related to the heat budget of the lower troposphere, it is considered that the trough position over the Far East region depends on the heat budget of the lower troposphere over the Aleutian region.

View full abstract

Korea has experienced drastic changes in the activity space and the periodic market, which has played the important role as a node of personal behavior, in association with the rapid economic growth since the 1960's.
The aim of this paper is to make clear the changing processes of the activity space and the periodic market.
This study is based on questionnaire method and field survey in Chung-cheong Buk province, which includes some basins located in central Korea. The general tendency of the personal behavior in a community is asked to a headmaster of elementary school in the community. Four periods are selected to represent the stage of economic growth: 1940, 1955, 1965 and 1980. Items of questionnaire include the following five types of usual personal behavior. They are shoppings, entertainment trips, shipments of agricultural products, use of medical facilities, and commuting.
Results of this study are as follows:
1. The ranges of the activity spaces which are defined by such items as the purchase of speciality goods, the entertainment trips, and the shipment of special agricultural product (apple) have shown a remarkable change, and the orientation of behavior have changed from lower-ordered centers to higher-ordered ones.
2. The range of the activity spaces, defined by lower-ordered items such as the purchase of perishable goods and underwears, the shipment of general agricultural products have shown a slight change. The range for the use of medical facilities, which is one of the higher-ordered items, have also shown a slight change.
3. The number of periodic markets had increased from 1940 to 1969, reflecting the improvement of the standerd of living.
4. Since 1973, most of the smaller-sized periodic markets located near the higher-ordered centers have disappeared with the improvement of public transportation systems, especially bus services and the progress of daily fixed markets and shopping streets.
5. The function of a periodic market has been weakened due to the intensification of urban function in the higher-ordered centers. On the other hand, there is a symbiotic relation between the periodic markets and the shopping streets in the periodic market day.
6. We can find a following central-place hierarchy in this area.

View full abstract

Recent progress on human geography has seen a marked increase in spatial autocorrelation studies, accompanied by elaboration and development of both its theoretical concepts and its operational techniques. This article presents a critical review of the history of spatial autocorrelation studies, defining its present status and emerging tasks.
The history of spatial autocorrelation studies may be conveniently divided into two stages, before and after the publication of “Spatial autocorrelation” by Cliff and Ord in 1973. The first stage is characterized by its underestimation and by general ignorance of its significance to spatial analysis. During this stage, spatial autocorrelation was used as a ready tool for judging the fulfillment of statistical assumptions, but even when the presence of spatial autocorrelation was statistically detected, any improvement of the statistical methods to incorporate spatial autocorrelation problems was not attempted.
However, during the second stage, there has been a growing recognition of the significance of spatial autocorrelation as a generating agent in the formation and transformation of spatial patterns. If spatial autocorrelation is defined as the lack of independence (i.e. the interdependence) of phenomena in space, any spatial patterns are a product of spatial autocorrelation, and in searching for the explanation of spatial patterns, spatial interdependence provides the key integrative concept.
Parallel with this reversal in attitude, the expanded application of spatial autocorrelation concepts has led to new research trends in the empirical and theoretical study of spatial patterns. New research trends in this field aim at generalizing and elaborating spatial autocorrelation concepts to develop their power of pattern testing. Interrelation between personal pattern recognition and the coeficient of spatial autocorrelation, which attempts to associate spatial autocorrelation with perception studies, has been explored by Gatrell (1977) and Olson (1975).
In the explanatory study of static spatial patterns, notable advancement of model construction has been attained by incorporating spatial lag components into the model as an independent variable. The same idea is applied to the examination of dynamic processes of pattern formation: the process is modeled on the independent variable of spatial-temporal lag components, evaluated from the structure of spatial-temporal autocorrelation. Both lag components are defined by the received spatial and spatial-temporal influences of each cell (sample) from its neighbors.
We can summarize the present situation as a shift of research interest in spatial autocorrelation from the statistical noise to be eliminated to the underlying process of pattern formation. In other words, the shift means a step toward establishment of a truly spatial analysis apart from the mere application of non-spatial statistical methods to spatial data.
However, two significant tasks remain to be elaborated: 1) definition of weight and 2) formulation of spatial and/or spatial/temporal models. In the present article, the main discussion is of the former problem.
An accurate and objective testing and explanation of a pattern can be attained by defining the most appropriate weight matrix, properly evaluated from the underlying spatial structure of the pattern. The concept of spatial autocorrelation (or interdependency) as a pattern organizer gives a promising clue for such identification. We may consider any spatial pattern to have been organized by the operation of spatial autocorrelation, which has generally been as sumed to have spatial isotropic properties. On this assumption, an isotropic weight matrix has been used for the testing and explanation of patterns. However, most of the observed and actual patterns show strong directional biases, suggesting the presence of underlying non-isotropic spatial structure.

View full abstract

The ratios of drainage basins with alluvial fans to all basins show two reliable peaks around 100 km² and 500 km² in the Japanese Islands (Fig. 1). The conditions of the alluvial fan formation were analyzed by interpretation of the peaks.
The bedrock lithology of drainage basins favourable for the formation of fans is plutonic rocks, tuffs, agglomerates, and metamorphic rocks (Table 2) . In such basins debris flows are considered to have frequently occurred in Japan. The drainage basins smaller than 250 km2 in area with alluvial fans are dominantly occupied by these rocks (Fig. 4). Furthermore, it has been pointed out that drainage patterns of basins smaller than 200 km2 in area are simple in Japan (Fig. 6), and that such basins provide the large specific peak discharge (Fig. 5). By taking all these factors into consideration, it can be stated that the detritus deposited by the debris flow on the river bed in the mountain is transported to the valley mouth at a stretch by the flood flow, and that alluvial fans are composed of such detritus. Paticularly, in the drainage basins around 100 km2 in area, the markedly high ratio of drainage basins with fans to all basins is considered to be attributed to the frequent occurrence of the flood.
In the drainage basins larger than 200 km² in area, the specific peak discharge is not high due to the complicated drainage patterns, but the total discharge is high enough to bring about the flood frequently. The wider the drainage basins are, the weaker the influence of the lithology on the formation of the alluvial fan (Table 3), It may be inferred that the bedload in the mountain are transported to the valley mouth by a number of floods and that the formation of an alluvial fan is a result of deposition by a stream which has swinged its channel to and fro over the accumulation material. This idea is supported by the fact that alluvial fans have been extensively formed in actively uplifted areas, i.e. Central Japan (Fig. 7), where sediments yield is very abundant. As the drainage basins become wider, the discharge and occurrece of floods increase. However, the ratios of basins with alluvial fans to those larger than 500 km2 in area decrease with the increase of area. This suggests that the coarser sediments cannot be transported to mountain fronts by the rivers due to gentle gradients and are mostly deposited in montane basins (Table 4).
In the drainage basins around 200 km2 in area the debris on the river bed is considered to be rarely reansported to the valley mouth at a stretch by the flood flow. After the transpotation has happened, the next flood flow appears to erode the debris deposited at the mountain front, because of a relatively small quantity of bedload in spite of large discharge. Consequently, it is difficult for the drainage basins around 200 km2 in area to form alluvial fans except the smaller ones (Fig. 2).

View full abstract