The female breast is known to be affected by mastalgia and discomfort due to its lack of anatomical support, irregular movement, and high forces during daily life and exercise. Excessive breast motion has been associated with exercise-induced breast pain, which can negatively affect performance, or even prevent some women from participating in physical activity. This study systematically reviewed major studies on women’s exercise and breast-related injuries, breast motion during exercise, and the function of sports bras in order to 1) understand factors affecting female breasts during exercise, and the effectiveness of sports bras in prevention of breast injury, and 2) identify issues related to the wearing of sports bras during exercise.
　In recent years, many studies have focused on sports bras and breast motion during exercise. These studies mainly employed biomechanical methods with treadmill running, and their results and conclusions differed. Similarly, multiple studies found different sports bra usage rates. On the other hand, many studies have agreed that breast motion during exercise should be reduced and that sports bras are effective for achieving this, but that many women choose the wrong bra size. These results point to a lack of knowledge of this issue among women. An intervention study of female students showed that better sports bra knowledge improved their ability to choose a bra providing support that was more appropriate for the intended level of physical activity and breast size. These findings indicate the need for educational approaches to better breast protection and injury prevention.

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Purpose: Based on a literature review, this study aimed to identify factors associated with outbreaks among athletes during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and to consider infection prevention measures for athletes.
Methods: We performed a scoping review of literature published in online databases from 2019 to February 28, 2023, based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis guidelines. Information on the selected references was organized and analyzed qualitatively, and text mining was performed to create association diagrams for co-occurrence associations of the detected words.
Results: Twelve references were selected for this study, and we extracted [characteristics of athletes and classification of sports], [factors that increase the risk of infection], and [symptoms and characteristics of infection]. Based on the results, the causes of COVID-19 outbreaks in athletes were divided into 3 categories: [personal factors other than sports], [factors related to playing under sports organizations], and 3 closely related situations related to athletes’ behavior and environment.
Conclusion: Outbreaks were common among all types of athletes and sports. The first infections were due to non-sport-related personal factors, and outbreaks occurred when the infection was introduced into the team. Furthermore, infection was spread due to personal and collective factors related to sports. Outbreaks may be prevented by avoiding infections of individuals in their daily life. The present results suggest that infection control measures based on the “ three Cs” in situations unique to sports can help prevent outbreaks.

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An examination of international research findings on sport and well-being (WB) was conducted to identify trends and issues for future empirical research. To this end, we adopted 3 review methods: 1) a quantitative review, 2) a review of “review articles”, and 3) a scoping review of empirical studies. The results are summarized as follows.　
1) Counting of keywords in the review articles revealed that words related to sport, such as “exercise” and “physical activity”, were used more frequently than those associated with WB, such as “quality of life”. In connection with sports, many studies used the terms “well-being”, “play”, and “leisure”. In relation to WB, many　studies used the term “quality of life”, “exercise”, “physical activity”, and “fitness”.　
2) Through collection of review articles and collation of their contents, we identified (1) medical clients, (2)children, (3) older adults, (4) adults, (5) athletes and coaches, and (6) families as target categories. In addition, we characterized each category on the basis of indicators and research methods used for assessment of exercise/sports.
　3) It was suggested that empirical studies of sports and WB still need to organize the definition and theoretical framework of WB and the methods used for measuring and analyzing sports activities. For example, “time”, “content”, and “orientation” were used to varying extents for measurement of sports concepts. Empirical research on sports and WB must focus on the quality of the measured sports activity and the context of life in which it takes place. There is a need for typology and taxonomy of sports that reflect the lives of individuals practicing them. It is also necessary to continue exploring the impact of such sports throughout an individual's lifetime.

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　This study investigated the characteristics of visual behavior in skilled kendoists while judging the validity of strikes. A total of 19 expert and 19 novice kendoists were asked to judge the validity of strikes for men (head armor), do (side trunk covered by a stomach and chest protector), or kote (lower forearm covered by a gauntlet). Simultaneously, the participants' eye movements were recorded at 30 Hz, and the location at which their gaze was directed was identified. Additionally, the pupil area was calculated for each frame. Both expert and novice kendoists focused on the striker's shinai (bamboo sword) during the phase from 900 ms to 600 ms before striking, and on the site struck during the phase from the moment of striking to 300 ms after striking. However, during the phase from 600 ms before the strike to just before the strike, the experts tended to switch their gaze from the strikefur's shinai to the striking site earlier than the novices. Furthermore, the pupil areas of the experts were correlated with their years of experience in judging the validity of a strike to the men. The gaze behavior specific to expert kendoists, such as observing the striking area during the phase just before striking while exhibiting intense scrutiny, may be related to their superior ability to judge the validity of strikes.

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　Sports skills are acquired and developed on a subjective basis involving elements such as individual consciousness and sensing. Sports skills are not fixed elements, but change and evolve with time. In gymnastics, the backward giant swing on the horizontal bar is an extremely important basic skill, as mastering it largely determines the standard of horizontal bar performance. A conventional theory regarding this skill has spread both nationally and internationally. It posits that rotational acceleration is created by snapping, which requires breaking the shoulders and maximizing the extension and flexion of body joints to tap the body's hidden limits. In contrast, a top world-level performer who was the subject of the present study has argued that keeping the body tight rather than breaking is the key, thus completely going against the commonly held theory. The technical characteristics and significance of this gymnast's approach were investigated by category analysis based on the phenomenological movement theory. This revealed that this top performer created rotational acceleration by exploiting the reaction of the horizontal bar by maximizing its bounce. This bar reaction was produced by generating tension in the body during overhang phases by staying tight to prevent the shoulders, waist and chest from extending.

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　As regional sport has been raised as an important policy issue, this study examined the autonomy and independence of the Japan Sport Association (JSPO) as a private sport governing body based on discussions of governance. This was based on the fact that the JSPO defines sport as a universal culture based on enjoyment of free physical activity, in contrast to the definition of sport provided by the Japanese government in the Basic Act on Sports.
　Positioning the governance of sport as a way to address sport-related issues and dividing the governance of sport between the need to improve the organization's management and the methodology of decision-making in relation to the realization of methods that are suited to Japan, it is clear that conventional discussion of sports governance in Japan is biased toward the former. Moreover, it has become clear from overseas cases that such discussions have harmful effects such as strengthening of supervision by the government. In view of the lack of consideration of decision-making methods designed to realize the ideal form of sport in Japan, this study examined the ideal state of the JSPO from the viewpoint of public policy theory and public administration, and particularly social governance, which covers the state and activity of various civil sectors acting in cooperation.
　Based on the discussion promoted by Kiku (2001), it became clear that sport as defined and promoted by the JSPO has a public face and is subject to discussion throught social governance. In addition, it is considered that the JSPO can secure its autonomy and independence from its role as a social governance actor. Analysis of the JSPO's medium-term policy suggested that the ratio of subsidies to income, and discussions regarding the definition of sports at conferences, etc., revealed that the JSPO lacks autonomy and independence, and that issues of social governance remain to be addressed. These findings suggest that the JSPO needs autonomy and independence to promote sport under its own definition, based on discussions of social governance.

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　The main purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement from multiple perspectives by linking data from the National Physical Fitness and Exercise Survey, and the National Assessment of Educational Attainment and Progress, targeting 1,213 6th grade elementary school students. Additionally, we examined the basic exercise, learning, and lifestyle factors related to the characteristics of physical fitness and academic achievement in a composite manner. The main results were as follows:
　1) Although a significant positive correlation was observed between physical fitness and academic achievement, the degree of association was low.
　2) There were significant differences in the average number of correct responses to the achievement test depending on the children's physical fitness level. Children with higher physical fitness levels tended to have higher academic achievement in all items. However, children in physical fitness assessment group E had significantly lower academic achievement scores, suggesting that the children with high physical fitness tended to have higher academic achievement.
　3) Multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the influence of lifestyle on both physical fitness and academic achievement. This revealed that 3 items – exercise time on weekdays and weekends and homework effort – were significantly related to physical fitness, 5 items – screen time on weekdays and weekends, homework effort, study preparation and review, and reading time on weekdays – were significantly related to academic achievement.
　The present results have revealed the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in upper elementary school students, as well as the characteristics of the combined relationship of basic habits to both.

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Race walking is a discipline of athletics recognized at Olympic and World Championship level. According to World Athletics technical rule 54.2, race walking is a progression of steps taken so that the walker maintains contact with the ground without any visible loss of contact (at least to the human eye). The aims of this study were (a) to verify the cognition of the flight time by race walking judges that might be necessary for the decision of loss of contact consistent with the rule wording and (b) to identify other motion factors that might affect judgment during race walking. Seven participants who received a Yellow-Paddle (violation of the technical definition) from 1 judge who was included in this study (yellow paddle group) and 7 participants who did not receive a Yellow-Paddle (no-yellow paddle group) during the race walking event were analyzed. The walking motions of these participants were recorded by 2 high-speed cameras (100 fps). Referring to the handbook for competition officials in Japan and previous studies, several judgment items (such as flight time, heel height, and shank and knee joint angle) were compared between the 2 groups. No significant difference in flight time between the 2 groups was evident, indicating that the judge was unable to judge the loss of contact violation accurately. However, the vertical heel position was significantly higher in the yellow paddle group than in no-yellow paddle group. Also, the knee joint angle was significantly more flexed in the former. Therefore, to avoid violation, keeping the heel in a low position with less flexion of the knee joint after toe-off with the ground may be significant.

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While learning outcomes in university physical education (PE) courses have previously been identified, details of the factors influencing them are very limited. In this context, the present study was conducted to examine the conditions that influence the learning outcomes of university PE courses, focusing on “learner characteristics” and “learning/ teaching behavior”as potential factors. A questionnaire survey was conducted among university students who had taken general PE courses. The study assessed learning outcomes using the Perceived Benefits Scale in university First-Year PE classes (PBS-FYPE). “Learner characteristics” were mainly assessed using the Japanese version of the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI-J), ENcode, Decode, COntrol, REgulate communication skill scales (ENDCOREs), and the Bidimensional Resilience Scale (BRS). In addition, “learning/teaching behavior” was mainly assessed using the Experience Scale in University Physical Education Classes (ESUPEC), the motivational climate scale in PE classes, and the teaching behavior of PE teachers. A total of 1,499 (803 male and 696 female, mean age: 19.1 ±0.9 years) participants completed the questionnaire. The findings, based on decision tree analysis using classification and regression trees (CART), suggested that aspects of PE class learning/teaching behavior such as challenge, cooperation, and enjoyment experience were the factors that had most influence on perceived benefits, rather than “learner characteristics”. However, PE teacher “empathy/ consideration”, student “degree of lesson willingness” and the class “mastery climate” were also identified as potential influencing factors. In particular, the CART analysis yielded a score of ›9.5 for “acquisition of exercise skills and training methods” and ›29.5 for “empathy/ consideration”. The study highlighted the importance of focusing on the content of the lessons and the teaching methods that satisfy the sport experience of students and thus enhance perceived benefits. To further understand the causal relationship between such factors and learning outcomes, longitudinal surveys and intervention studies will be necessary. The present findings should help to improve the design and delivery of university PE courses, and thus enhance the learning outcomes of students.

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The purpose of this study was to clarify background factors related to difficulties in teaching sexuality among health and physical education teachers. Seven health and physical education teachers (5 males and 2 females) from junior high schools and high schools participated, and data were analyzed using the M-GTA method. As a result, 16 concepts and 6 categories were extracted. The participants had (a) “low self-confidence about instructional competency regarding sex-related content”, (b) “concern about transdisciplinary collaboration with other teachers and families”, (c) “concern during hands-on practices”, (d) “reluctance to use educational resources”, (e) “teaching in one’s own way”, and (f) “beliefs about sexuality”. There were difficulties in understanding that students were at a stage in their development where their interests in sexuality were increasing, and that they may not be able to receive appropriate guidance due to their gender and gender perceptions. With regard to “concerns in practical situations”, they felt “uneasiness in responding to students’ reactions” and “concern about how students would receive the content of instruction”. In the future, it will be important to offer teachers various opportunities for learning how to use instructional methods and practicing pedagogy during teacher training.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the causal relationship between students ’ perception of feedback and learning outcomes in physical education classes based on data from a 3-point longitudinal survey of junior high school students.
The surveys were conducted 3 times in June-July 2022, November-December 2022, and February-March 2023. A total of 596 students (305 boys, 291 girls, 257 first-year students, 205 second-year students, and 134 third year students) who responded to all surveys without missing any questions were included in the analysis. The content of the survey was a feedback cognitive measurement scale(praise, advice for motor skills, reprimands for class behavior, criticism for motor skills) and a set of items assessing learning outcomes(learning motor skills, cultivating communication skills, acquiring knowledge on body and movement, feeling the attraction of physical activities, and improving physical capacity) in physical education classes. In the analysis, the validity of the 3-wave cross-lagged effect model was verified using structural equation modeling.
The results of the analysis revealed respective causal relationships starting from feedback and learning outcomes, specifically: (1) A cyclical causal relationship between learning outcomes and perception of positive and corrective feedback in the form of praise and advice for motor skills was demonstrated only for boys. (2) There were differences between boys and girls in their perception of positive and corrective feedback depending on their learning outcomes. (3) No significant effect of negative feedback on learning outcomes was evident for both boys and girls.
It was considered important for teachers to give positive feedback on exercise tasks in physical education classes. In particular, it is necessary to consider how to assign tasks to girls and the degree of task difficulty, and to provide them with a sufficient amount of information in the form of feedback. Therefore, it was confirmed that each subscale had generally satisfactory reliability and validity. Finally, the need for validation of the causal model and case studies for the goals of health and physical education were raised as future issues.

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This study investigated the diving motions of top-level goalkeepers in response to different situations, such as the position from which the shot is released and the number of touches leading up to the shot. The sample was a shooting scene from the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, and the shooting position and the number of touches were classified. In addition, the diving motions of the goalkeeper were classified into 3 types based on the leg motions leading up to takeoff from the ground, and the number of diving motions per shooting pattern was verified. The results revealed that the frequency of diving motions differed depending on the position from which the shot was delivered. The frequency of occurrence of each diving motion in the area close to the goal was significantly greater when the opponent shot with 1 touch than with 2 or more touches. These results suggest a relationship between the situation in which the shot is released and the choice of diving motion by the goalkeeper.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the learning outcomes of P.E. classes with Performer and Coach Earn Rewards (PACER), a cooperative learning model. To verify the effects of the PACER unit, a comparison was made by conducting a non-intervention unit at an elementary school different from that of the PACER unit. Mat exercise units were conducted during 9 lessons. Thirty-one fourth grade students in the PACER unit, and 30 in the general units participated. Students’ formative evaluation of every lesson and social skills questionnaires in the before and after units were collected. The movement skills for the backward roll and cartwheel in the before and after units and observation of students’ human relationships were video recorded and analyzed according to the criteria for observational evaluation and category.
The main results were as follows:
(1) The students’ formative evaluation showed high scores for both the PACER and general units. In the PACER unit, the average scores for the“Achievement” and “Cooperation” dimensions were high throughout the unit. This means that the PACER unit was a unit in which the students were able to experience achievement and cooperate with their peers.
(2) The total scores for the students’ social skills in the PACER unit were improved. These skills, “consideration toward others” and “assertiveness” showed significant improvement. The observed students’ human relationships supported these findings, as many positive relational behaviors were observed.
(3) The general impression was that the backward roll was less adept and that the cartwheel was improved in the general unit. However, both the backward roll and the cartwheel were improved in the PACER unit.
These results suggest that PACER could be effective for improvement of social skills and movement quality as part of the mat exercise unit in which the backward roll and cartwheel are taught.

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This study aimed to determine the “shape” of the trunk of Japanese elite male gymnasts using novel application of a homologous body model (HBM) based on geometric morphometrics. The participants included Japanese elite gymnasts (GYs; age 22.8± 3.8 years; height 162.8±5.0 cm; weight 59.1±5.5 kg) and non-athletes (NAs; age 22.2±3.8 years; height 171.5±5.2 cm; weight 62.9± 9.0 kg). A three-dimensional whole-body line scanner (Hamamatsu Photonics, Inc.) was used to scan the upright standing posture. Body fat was estimated using air-displacement plethysmography. The HBM was constructed by fitting whole-body laser-scanning polygon data to a generic template model based on anatomical landmarks. Principal component analysis was used to assess body “shapes.” The main conclusions of this study were as follows: 1) A total of 9 PCs explained 94.4% of shape variability. 2) Horizontal cross-sectional comparisons of GYs and NAs normalized to body height indicated that GYs had larger chest circumferences on the ventral and dorsal sides. 3) Normalized HBM to body height indicated that GYs had narrower waist and larger and thicker chest regions. 4) Elite GYs who excelled in floor exercises and vaulting had pronounced regions near their neck and upper trunk, while those who excelled on the pommel horse and rings had pronounced chest and waist regions. The body shape of Japanese GYs did not differ significantly at competition level; however, they exhibited characteristics specific to the events in which they excelled.

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Unlike the short sprint, it is known that the body cannot complete the 400–m race at maximum effort, and sprinters need to utilize mechanical energy effectively to control fatigue during the race. The purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship between the effectiveness index (EI) of mechanical energy utilization (assessed by stride length divided by mechanical work) and 400–m sprint performance. Twelve collegiate sprinters ran the 400–m distance. EI was calculated from kinematic data at the 160–m and 360-m points. EI at the 160–m point was negatively correlated with the 400–m running time (r = − 0.797，p <0.01), whereas EI at the 360–m point was positively correlated (r = 0.836，p <0.001). EI at the 160-m point was positively correlated with the segment torque power (r = 0.614，p <−0.05) and hip flexion peak power (r = 0.588，p <0.05) during the forward swing. These results suggest that the key to improving 400–m sprint performance is to utilize mechanical energy effectively in the early phase and generate more mechanical energy in the late phase. Additionally, emphasizing thigh forward swing movements seems to be an effective means of utilizing mechanical energy in the early phase.

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High-intensity exercise increases fat oxidation during subsequent aerobic training. In previous studies, however, it was difficult to apply this concept to endurance competitions because of the long duration of highintensity exercise, which would reduce the quantity and quality of any subsequent endurance training. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of short–duration high–intensity exercise on fat oxidation followed by endurance training, in order to identify potential applications of this approach to endurance competitions. Eight subjects performed 3 trials: resistance training followed by endurance training (RT+Run trial), high-intensity running followed by endurance training (HIR+Run trial), and endurance training only (Run trial). The endurance training was a 12–km run. The total cumulative fat oxidation in the RT+Run trial, HIR+Run trial and Run trial during the 12–km run was 30.0 ±13.7 g, 34.8 ± 9.5 g and 26.9 ± 8.4 g, respectively. Only the HIR+Run trial showed significantly higher fat oxidation than the Run trial. These findings suggest that short–duration highintensity running is suitable for increasing fat oxidation followed by endurance training.

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The Japan Sports Agency plans to shift the operation of junior high school extracurricular sports activities from schools to private clubs and organizations in local communities. To consider the necessary reforms, this study examined the effect of socioeconomic status (SES) on the attitudes of mothers and fathers of schoolchildren towards the shift.
(1) Parental attitudes exhibited 3 factors: “sense of acceptance” indicating understanding and acceptance of the need for regional transition, “sense of burden” as a cognitive attitude toward the financial and physical burden, and “support intention” indicating support for their children’s sports activities after the shift. About 40-50% of parents, regardless of gender, exhibited a sense of acceptance. About 30% of parents expressed a sense of burden, while about 20-30% of fathers and 10-20% of mothers had a “support intention”.
(2) The relationship between SES and attitudes was found only among mothers. Specifically, mothers with higher household incomes tended to have a higher sense of acceptance and a lower sense of burden. Similarly, mothers with higher education tended to have a higher sense of acceptance and support intention than those with lower education. Mothers with less educated spouses were more likely to feel a sense of burden than those with more highly educated spouses.
(3) Multiple regression analysis using a sample of mothers revealed that household income had a positive effect on a sense of acceptance and support intention, and that the spouse’s educational attainment had a positive effect on a sense of acceptance, even when variables such as personal characteristics, sports experience, and attitudes toward sports were included.
These results suggest that when the operation of extracurricular activities is taken over by local organizations, children from families with lower SES may face limitations in opportunities to participate in those activities. Therefore, it is crucial and urgent to establish a safety net for sports services that would enable children to enjoy sports even if they belong to families with low SES.

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The 32^nd Olympic Games held in 2021 (Tokyo 2020 (+1)) was the first Olympics hosted by Japan since the 18^th Winter Olympic Games held in Nagano, Japan in 1998, and it generated a great deal of excitement in the country. However, the 32^nd Olympic Games scheduled for 2020 (Tokyo 2020) had to be postponed by 1 year due to COVID-19, and many people including athletes were affected. Even under such circumstances, the Japanese team won a total of 58 medals, including 27 gold medals, representing the highest national total in history. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to use JISS-Psychological Ability Test for Elite Athletes (J-PATEA) to determine the psychological factors of Japanese athletes who participated in the unprecedented Olympic Games held in their home country. The subjects were representative and candidate athletes for Tokyo 2020 (assessed before the decision to postpone Tokyo 2020) and Tokyo 2020 (+1) (assessed after the decision to implement Tokyo 2020 (+1)). Comparisons were also made with past Olympic competitions (Rio 2016). The results showed that many of the J-PATEA factors, including the overall score, were significantly higher for Tokyo 2020 and Tokyo 2020 (+1) than for Rio 2016, suggesting that the psychological state of Japanese athletes was improving. In addition, Tokyo 2020 (+1) medalists had a higher score for many J-PATEA factors than the representative and candidate athletes, revealing the psychological characteristics of top athletes. The present results indicate that mastery of self-control skills and reaffirmation of goals are important during unforeseen events. Furthermore, it was also suggested that self-understanding is particularly important for becoming a world-class athlete, indicating the value of psychological support that promotes self-understanding.

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The purpose of this study was to clarify the experience of pain associated with bodily movement by examining how this experience transforms the perceptual world of the practitioner. The background of the study presented circumstances in which the opportunity to experience pain would be reduced, especially in physical education classes. Due to the negative connotations associated with pain, there is naturally a belief that opportunities to experience it should be decreased. However, is the experience of pain during bodily movement merely a negative one?
While previous studies have analyzed the experience of pain in bodily movement from a phenomenological viewpoint, and implied that it affects our actions, not much consideration has been given to changing our acts correctively by transforming the perceptual world. In order to address this gap, the present study attempted to clarify the meaning of pain experienced during bodily movement by considering the relationship between this experience and the perceptual world of the practitioner. This analysis was based on body-related phenomenology, with a specific focus on Merleau-Ponty’s theory, which posits that the “body schema” of the practitioner is transformed through the experience of pain. This enables the practitioner to perceive things and others in situations where collisions are likely to occur. Without this perception, the practitioner would be unable to respond effectively. Therefore, the experience of pain associated with bodily movement is essential for averting potential dangers such as collisions, thus ensuring safety

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　This study attempted to evaluate the approaches of college athletes to their own athletics, or varsity sports, and to examine the influence of those approaches on their initial job search.
　A web–based survey (opt–out method) was administered to college athletes (March 2023 graduates) who participated in career events exclusively for college athletes, and responses were obtained from 15,643. The 3,327 undergraduate students who reported some kinds of job offer were divided into 2 groups: group Y 2,662 (males 1,673; females 989), who could not be identified as having received any job offer from the top 300 most popular companies, and group Z 665 (males 410; females 255), who were identified as having received a job offer from the top 300 most popular companies, which were treated as objective variables. The student athletes were classified into 5 types according to their approaches to athletics by (1) setting 19 arbitrary items (4–point scale) from the Sports Version Self–regulated Learning Scale and the Life Skills Scale, (2) obtaining factor scores for 7 factors through factor analysis of the response trends, and (3) conducting hierarchical cluster analysis using the obtained factor scores. Cross–tabulations and binary logistic regression analysis using other explanatory variables were conducted to examine the relationship between the 5 types and the distribution of groups Y and Z.
　The main results were as follows: Most importantly, (a) college athletes’ approaches to their own athletics affected the rate of receiving job offers from popular companies even after controlling for other variables, (b) the rate of receiving job offers from popular companies was reduced simply by being female, (c) universityprestige rank had a dominant effect on the rate of receiving job offers from popular companies for both males and females, (d) sports–based enrollment decreased the rate of receiving job offers from popular companies in comparison to student athletes enrolled through other admission portals, (e) GPA improved the job offer rate from popular companies, (f) the “results” of athletic efforts, i.e., the highest athletic performance and intramural competitiveness, had little relationship with the job offer rate from popular companies, and (g) being a member of a “team sport” team/club increased the job offer rate from popular companies, and this tendency was more significant for males.
　From a career development perspective, for college athletics, it is not important to belong simply to a varsity team, but it is more important to be intensively involved in the activities of a team and to strive to achieve results.

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Round-off is essential the performance of backward somersaults on the gymnastics floor. However, very few studies have focused on the generation of angular momentum during a round–off. This study investigated the mechanism responsible for generation of rotational movement during round–off. Eight male gymnasts performed a round–off to a stretched backward somersault from a one–leg standing position. Each trial was videotaped using 4 cameras to obtain the three–dimensional coordinate data. A 14–segment link model was used to examine the total’body potential energy, kinetic energy, and angular momentum of the somersault and twist axes. The joint forces and torques were calculated using inverse dynamics. The main results were as follows:
1) In the stepping–in phase, a greater decrease in the potential energy of the head and torso correlated with an increased angular momentum around the somersault axis for the entire body.
2) During the leg swing phase, the angular momentum of the lead leg, head, and torso increased around the somersault axis, with energy primarily transferred from the torso to the thigh of the lead leg owing to the power generated by the joint forces.
3) In the handstand phase, the angular momentum of the lead and trail legs decreased and increased, respectively, around the somersault axis. Energy from the joint power generated by joint forces flowed from the thigh of the lead leg to the torso and the torso to the thigh of the trail leg.
4) In the snap–down phase, the angular momentum of the lead and trail legs decreased around the somersault axis, whereas those of the head and torso increased. The energy generated by the joint forces flowed from the thighs of the lead and trail legs to the torso.
5) In the take–off phase, the body’s position was elevated at the expense of a decrease in angular momentum.
6) The angular momentum around the center of mass for the twisting axis indicated that although the overall angular momentum was zero, the lead and trail legs exhibited positive angular momentum, whereas the head and torso showed negative angular momentum.

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　The focus of this study centered on first–year high school judo (55 target students), second–year high school tennis (135 target students), and second–year high school mat exercise (86 target students) classes within the realm of physical education. The objective was to enhance students’ motor skills, aiming to clarify the characteristics of teachers’ verbal communication that contributed to this improvement. We hypothesized that if teachers intentionally designed specific language for use in physical education classes, it would result in enhanced skill performance and be beneficial for students. To test this hypothesis, we compiled a “lexicon of designed language” and administered questionnaires and skills surveys to students. The results were analyzed, the wording was categorized into 2 dimensions: “design of the objective” and “design of the form.” Additionally, “design of the objective” was further categorized into “transfer into the body”, “relationship between the body and the outside”, and “relationship to the outside”. The terms “transfer” and “formal devices” were then subdivided into “metaphors”, “onomatopoeia”, “rhythm”, and “gaze”.

Two key findings emerged:
1) A significant positive correlation of varying degree was observed among the question items assessing “overall usefulness”, “sensory understanding”, “image formation”, “new discoveries”, and “subjective improvement”, reflecting how students perceived each statement. Notably, the items “sensory understanding”, “image formation”, “new discoveries”, and “subjective improvement” were found to collectively impact “overall usefulness”.
2) Upon examining how teachers could intentionally design their language for each class type in order to garner favorable responses from students and enhance their skill achievements, the following insights were obtained:
　a) In judo, techniques based on “transfer into the body” and “rhythm” proved more beneficial for students than those focusing on “relationships between the inside and outside”. Notably, techniques grounded in “rhythm” were markedly effective for skill improvement.
　b) In tennis, concepts such as “relationship between the inside and outside”, “transfer to the outside”, and “rhythm” were more useful for students than “metaphors”. Skill results were particularly evident for innovations based on “rhythm”.
　c) In the mat exercise, it was discovered that ideas involving “transfer into the body”, “onomatopoeia”, and “gaze” were more beneficial for students than “metaphors”. Skill results were especially noticeable for techniques utilizing “transference” and “line of sight”.

　In conclusion, our study demonstrated that intentionally designed language can positively influence students’ perception and skill acquisition in physical education classes. These findings contribute valuable insights for educators seeking to enhance their instructional communication strategies.

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　In Japan, sports recommendation admissions (SRA) at universities are an important research subject when considering the relationship between higher education and competitive sports. Examination of factors that contribute to the expansion of SRA in the social context of university entrance examinations would help clarify the position of “athletic achievements” in the social selection domain. However, previous studies have not clarified the developmental process of university SRA or the actual status of the system.
　Therefore, the purpose of this study was to clarify the contemporary development of university SRA in Japan. Specifically, after clarifying the SRA expansion process following their establishment in 1988 to 2022, we attempted to grasp the quantitative reality of SRA in 2023 using as our primary data source documents showing the admissions status of university authorities, newspaper articles, and SRA entrance examination guidelines for each university. Consequently, the following institutional characteristics of SRA were identified.
　(1) SRA are an admissions system that is strongly influenced by university management. As many as 57.2% of the universities that conducted SRA in the 2023 admissions process had a requirement for SRA entrants to continue their athletic activities as a requirement for application. Furthermore, university authorities were selective about which competitions were eligible for SRA, and the SRA openings varied depending on the competition. Therefore, SRA are a means for universities to attract a significant number of students.
　(2) The SRA system is a “hidden system.” A certain number of universities did not disclose the details of their SRA entrance examination guidelines and admissions process. Since the emphasis on the informal aspect may undermine trust in the entrance examination system, ensuring transparency and fairness is an institutional issue.
　(3) SRA are an entrance examination system based on the principle of ability, i.e., “athletic achievement”. Ｉｎ SRA, “effort” obtained in the process as well as athletic achievement is important. In the Japanese meritocracy, the ability to work hard is regarded as a key attribute, and it is considered that SRA have become accepted as a result of including this actuality.

　The expansion of SRA with these characteristics is evidence that SRA have been given a meritocratic selection function in Japanese society. In the future, it will be necessary to follow the SRA transformation process through continuous and regular data collection, beginning with this study.

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　The purpose of this study was to re–examine the definitions of “offense” and “defense” within the confines of invasion games, and to present an appropriate view of both concepts.
　Traditionally, ball games have “offense” and “defense” characteristics. Generally, “offense” is when a side possessing the ball attempts to score, whereas “defense” is when a side lacking ball possession attempts to prevent the opposition scoring.
　However, in some instances, when sides are contesting the ball, a side may be considered as “attacking” even if it is not in possession, whereas a side may be considered as “defending” even if it is in possession.
　Currently, no satisfactory research has yet been done for defining “offense” and “defense” in invasion games.
　The present analysis clarified the following points:
1) “Offense” and “defense” in invasion games constitute a relationship of competitive opposition. Therefore, they should be considered from the viewpoint of competition between opponents.
2) Every invasion game is a competition for scoring the most points. In each game, ball carriers vie with opponents to transfer the ball to a destination, irrespective of whether they succeed. In addition, opponents vie with ball carriers to retrieve the ball, irrespective of success.
3) The relationship of the 2 sides involves attempts to transfer the ball through “offense”, running counter to preventive attempts through “defense”. In the latter case, the opposition is the side attempting to retrieve the ball through “offense”, whereas the other side is attempting to prevent this through “defense”.
　Consequently, within invasion games, “offense” can be understood as one side attempting to transfer or retrieve the ball through a relationship with the opposition, whereas “defense” can be understood as the other side attempting to prevent transfer of the ball or retrieving the ball through a relationship with the opposition. Neither concept can be explained as merely possessing or not possessing the ball.

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This study attempted to construct a causal model in which social support indirectly influences athletic condition (enthusiasm, stagnation, perseverance, and exhaustion) through coping in the process of developing burnout. The aim was to examine the validity of the model and the influence of each factor. The study subjects were 210 college athletes. First, based on previous research, social support evaluated using the short version of the Social Support Scale for Athletes was employed as an independent variable, and coping strategies evaluated by the situational version of the Stress Coping Scale were employed as mediating variables. We set up a hypothetical model in which competitive status evaluated by the second edition was the dependent variable, and examined the validity of the model using path analysis. We then examined the relationships between each of the variables. Our analysis yielded the following results: 1) Each goodness-of-fit index for the causal model had good values that met the acceptance criteria (GFI = .982, AGFI = .934, CFI = .999, RMSEA = .010), thus confirming the model’s validity. 2) It was confirmed that the relationship with competitive status differed depending on the type of social support and coping strategy.

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The first professional women’s soccer league in Japan, called the “WE League,” was started in September 2021. The league strives to promote diversity and inclusivity in society, including the empowerment of women, and as an entry criterion for the promotion of women, it stipulates: “at least one woman coach must be included in the coaching staff”. As a whole, the percentage of women coaches in the WE League is high, being 28% in the first year, but some problematic issues remain, such as a decrease in the number of women coaches with increased coaching age, the existence of teams without women coaches, and the fact that the top team is the only one with a woman as head coach. In this connection, the present study focused on the WE League as the first top league in Japan to require the promotion of women coaches, with the aim of clarifying the efforts of clubs and the barriers they faced in achieving this policy. These issues were examined from an employer’s perspective, using LaVoi and Dutove’s (2012) ecological model of barriers and support for women coaches as an analytical framework.
For the purpose of this study, 4 clubs that have achieved the entry criteria for the appointment of women coaches were selected, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 4 individuals responsible for organizing the coaching staff at these clubs. The interview data were analyzed using SCAT, which is a qualitative data analysis method.
The results showed that, while the efforts and barriers to achieving the entry criteria for appointing women coaches varied according to club background, some commonalities were also identified. Efforts in common were hiring a combination of men and women coaches and human resource development within the organization.
Also, the common barriers identified included the number of women coaches, a lack of self-efficacy, the threat of stereotyping, inadequate support systems for continuing as coaches, and the gap between league seasons.
Future research should aim at increasing the number of research subjects and conducting longitudinal studies to assess the impact of the start of the WE League on women’s soccer and to present data that could help in its application to other organizations.

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This study aimed to clarify the tactical actions and signature techniques of elite female kendoists. For this purpose, we conducted interviews with 3 female kendoists who had competed at international level, and analyzed their narratives qualitatively. Our findings were as follows:
(1) In the preparation stage, before using their most accomplished waza, the best players adopted a stance with issoku-itto-no-maai before their opponents so that their opponents would not feel the presence of a strike, thereby controlling the maai offense and defense and kehai offense and defense.
(2) When striking with their signature technique, the best players allowed the opponent to read the signs of their strikes, anticipated the opponent’s reaction to their strikes, and then executed their signature technique.
(3) The best players adjusted their strategies depending on their opponents. They might choose to initiate the match with their signature move and execute it, or might focus on overwhelming the opponent with their energy without directly responding to the opponent. In such cases, they performed tactical actions with concentration and spirit to finish the opponent with a single blow.
(4) Outstanding players have reached a state in which they can unconsciously perform their best techniques, which they have learned through repeated practice, during a match. When they demonstrate their best techniques, they are in a state of selflessness and cannot consciously look back.

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　There are 2 key issues central to sports integrity education in Japan. First, while both aspirational ethics and preventive ethics are important, there is a bias toward practical research focusing on preventive ethical approaches, whereas insufficient attention is given to aspirational ethics. Second, despite the necessity of sports integrity education for young individuals, especially considering the trend toward younger top athletes, there has been a lack of practical research on this topic.
　In the light of these issues, this paper proposes new teaching materials and instructional methods designed to achieve an aspirational ethics education approach, drawing on recent practices in moral education that emphasize “thought and discussion” in schools. Additionally, it discusses approaches for the training for top youth athletes and assesses the effectiveness of such training.
　In developing the teaching resource, materials aimed at “value clarification” were employed to help players explore their ideals and values, while materials focusing on “moral dilemmas” were also included to allow individuals to reflect on their role as athletes by making choices in morally conflicting situations. The training was conducted with 40 J–League youth soccer players as part of a 50–minute sports integrity session. The focus was on mutual learning and the exploration of values and ideals cherished by the players themselves, rather than on providing definitions or transmitting knowledge of sports integrity.
　The results indicated that only ideal values elicited a significant increase in the number of ideal images articulated by the players before and after the training. In addition, free responses such as “What skills do I need now?” were observed, suggesting that exposure to the values of others prompted the players to reconsider, expand, and deepen their own important values. Furthermore, the materials focusing on moral dilemmas provided an effective opportunity to deepen discussions and explore a range of values by engaging players in debates covering 5 ethical conflict situations from opposing viewpoints.
　In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the use of materials focusing on moral dilemmas prompting individuals to ask “What kind of athlete do I want to be?” and encouraging reaffirmation of values and ideals through discussion of morally conflicting situations was an effective approach for aspirational ethics education. This approach was considered to help athletes realize and pursue their own ideals and values.

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　The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different measurements under 3 surface conditions on jump distance in the standing long jump. The participants were 15 members of a college male basketball team. In the experiment, each participant performed standing long jump tests under 3 surface conditions for maximal distance: 1) tartan track take off - sand landing, 2) wooden floor take off - artificial turf landing, and 3) mat take off - mat landing conditions. The jump distance was measured 3 times for the 3 conditions with a measuring tape, from which the longest jump distance was selected. The data were analyzed to assess differences in the conditions for jump distance and individual variability. The mat-mat condition resulted in lower performance than the other 2 conditions (by 3–5%). No significant differences in jump distance were found between the tartan track take off - sand landing and wooden floor take off - artificial turf landing conditions. In terms of individual variability, there were no significant differences in the coefficient of variation of the jump distance among the 3 conditions. These results suggest the need for awareness of the environmental surface conditions, since measurement of the standing long jump distance on soft surfaces, such as under mat take off - mat landing conditions, could result in a shortening of the distance by approximately 3-5%. In addition, the measurement environment should be standardized as far as possible when performing cross-sectional and longitudinal evaluations, as different surface conditions might result in different measurements.

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　This study investigated 1 class in the 5th grade of elementary school (12 boys and 16 girls) who received coaching in endurance running using 3 methods : the all-out method, in which children ran at almost full exertion; the inner/outer track (I/OT) method, in which the duration of exercise was equalized by having slower/faster runners use the inner/outer running tracks, respectively; and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) method, in which children ran at a “fairly light — somewhat hard” intensity. We compared the changes in awareness regarding endurance running and explored the factors responsible for these changes based on exercise intensity and pace strategy. Our results were as follows: 1) Before implementation of the coaching methods, the percentage of those who perceived endurance running favorably was significantly higher for boys (83.3%) than for girls (43.8%) (p ＝ .046) and for other question items, scores for boys were generally higher. 2) After implementation of the coaching methods, favorable responses remained high at 91.7% for boys and increased to 62.5 - 75.0% for girls, irrespective of coaching method. However, there were no significant differences among the 3 methods, and no tendency for the positivity rate to increase for any particular method. 3) For each coaching method, running speed showed a U-shaped curve, with no apparent gender difference. However, the running speed and stride length that contributed to it were significantly higher in boys than in girls. 4) Regardless of gender, the heart rate (HR) observed for each coaching method rose rapidly immediately after the start, and HRs at the 40% and 100% time points had increased to 180.9 -186.5 bpm and 182.1 - 195.3 bpm, respectively, there being no differences among the 3 methods. 5) The RPE taught before running and the RPE just after running almost matched. However, the RPE just after running was 6 (HR 60 beats/min) lower than the HR at the end of running. 6) In conclusion, there were no significant differences between the 3 coaching methods for both sexes in terms of favorable attitudes, irrespective of the type of endurance running, pace pattern or HR. However, endurance running ability and attitude towards endurance running were less favorable for girls than for boys, suggesting that a coaching method designed to develop a favorable attitude is particularly desirable for girls.

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The purpose of this study was to implement a teaching plan for 3rd grade elementary school swimming classes involving pushing off the wall and gliding in a streamlined position and to verify its effectiveness. The verification class targeted 13 children (5 boys and 8 girls) who were not good at exercise.
　The main results are summarized as follows:
　•In the verification class, pushing off the wall and gliding in a streamlined position were significantly improved in terms of the “reaching distance” and the movement scores for all of the evaluated parameters, i.e. “sinking”, “kicking out”, “recoil action”, “arms”, “head”, “trunk”, “legs”, and “horizontal posture”.
　•Formative evaluations of the verification class suggested that it guaranteed the subjective learning outcomes of the target children.
　The study results suggested that the learning plan effectively improved the proficiency of 3rd grade elementary school children at pushing off the wall and gliding in a streamlined position.

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We conducted a questionnaire survey of 859 students attending a National College of Technology to clarify the importance of physical education from their own perspective. The questionnaire required the students to write freely (more than 100 words) about their thoughts on the importance of physical education, as well as their club activity affiliation and daily exercise habits. The results revealed that the percentage of senior high school students involved in club activities and the frequency and duration of daily exercise were lower than those of junior high school students at the college. The importance of physical education in the students’ view was classified into 6 categories: “securing opportunities for exercise”, “self–improvement”, “stress reduction”, “interdisciplinary exchange”, “building human relationships” and “maintaining and improving health”. The frequency of these descriptive phrases being used varied from grade to grade, suggesting that each grade has different physical education needs. Although in this research we were able to collect data indicative of current trends, increasing the number of colleges and participants might provide more valuable information about overall trends in colleges regarding physical education and exercise.

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After the COVID-19 pandemic, “locomotive syndrome” (LS) has become a problem in not only the elderly but also in young people. In particular, university students with LS tend to have low trunk flexibility, lower limb muscle strength, and a lower physical activity level. Early detection and prevention of LS is an issue, but most conventional studies focusing on LS prevention have involved the elderly, and no exercise intervention studies for LS have been conducted on young people, especially university students. In this study of university students, we designed a LS prevention exercise using socks (socks exercise), focusing on the similarity with daily activities, and conducted an exercise intervention program. The purpose of the study was to clarify the changes in flexibility, muscle strength, balance ability and mood of university students before and after the intervention by designing and teaching socks exercise for the prevention of LS focusing on the similarity with daily activities. The subject were 16 undergraduate and graduate students (3 males and 13 females) who took part in a 3-week exercise program (participation in 5 exercise instruction sessions and daily training at home). Before and after the intervention, we investigated seated forward bending, the standing broad jump, grip strength, center of pressure measurement, the stand-up test, the two-step test, and the children’s locomo basic movement check (single-leg standing, deep squatting, standing forward bending, and vertical raising of both arms). The TDMS-ST was used to investigate mood before and after the socks exercise. The total locus length and circumferential area in the right single-leg standing exercise showed a significant trend for improvement after the intervention (p ‹ 0.1). Fifteen of the 16 subjects maintained or improved their stand-up test score, and the two-step test score increased significantly (p ‹ 0.05). The results of TDMS-ST showed that the level of activity improved significantly after the socks exercise (p ‹ 0.05), and that the subjects became more energetic and lively. It is concluded that the socks exercise may be effective as a preventive measure against LS in university students, leading to an improvement in the static balance ability, an improvement in horizontal mobility, and an improvement in mood of the subjects. In addition, the results indicate that the socks exercise may reduce the risk of LS, as it tended to improve static balance, flexibility, and lower limb muscle strength in individuals with LS.

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This case study aimed to identify the characteristics of kateikahoken, which was conceptualized and practiced by Mitsuo Yuzawa and Yoko Yanada at the Tokyo Metropolitan Nousan High School in the 1970s. Specifically, the collected materials on kateikahoken were analyzed using the instructional design method (ADDIE model).
The study results were as follows.
First, the impetus for the conception of kateikahoken was (1) the lack of facilities and equipment as the gender ratio of the student population reversed and the school became a predominantly female school, and (2) changes in students’ views on sexual morality because of social influences such as media reports on sexuality.
Next, the characteristics of kateikahoken practice were: (1) a unit to review the students’ own past, such as “Science of Me”, and a class to consider the students’ future, such as “Science of Sex” were implemented; (2) a class style employing discussion, research, and investigation centered upon group learning to increase the students’ motivation and interest in learning; and (3) Yuzawa and Yanada analyzed the students’ health issues as a lack of understanding of human relationships, such as love and romance among humans, and created realistic lesson content that would be useful in their real lives after graduation.
Finally, the practical issues of kateikahoken were: (1) difficulty with learning individualization owing to the diverse home environments of the students; (2) the factual content of the material, which makes explanations dependent on the experiential nature of the teachers; and (3) the incompleteness of the systematics and learning content.

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　The ALACT model has been proposed as a method to promote the formation of teachers’ professional competence in reflection. The purpose of this study was to examine student teachers’ “awareness of essential aspects” generated through “reflection on action” using the ALACT model, and the resulting transformation of their classroom practice, from a case study perspective. For this purpose, analysis using the SCAT was first conducted on the reflection sheets of the student teachers to clarify the content of their “awareness of essential aspects”. Then, by comparing the results of the SCAT analysis with the results of interviews with the student teachers, the specifics of their “awareness of essential aspects” and the transformation of their teaching practices were examined.
　The student teachers’ “awareness of essential aspects” was found to consist of the following 11 items: “discrepancies between objectives and support/learning activities”, “individualized assessment and support”, “designing of learning environments that allow learners to reach their objectives”, “reflective thinking”, “the essence of ball games”, “the essence of adaptation games”, “orientation to the theme of the lesson”, “teacher behavior to give learners a perspective”, “symbiotic learners”, “teacher–learner interaction”, and “providing immersion and engagement for all learners”.
　Next, based on the student teachers’ interview narratives after the completion of teaching practice, it was considered that “awareness of essential aspects” had led to a change in values about classroom practice and views on teaching. It was also suggested that “awareness of essential aspects” encouraged the student teachers to “reflect on their thinking” in class. In addition, part of the student teachers’ “awareness of essential aspects” was interpreted as a form of sensitivity reflection.

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　Tennis was included in Japan’s elementary school physical education course of study for the first time in 2017. While there is some literature on practice tasks and skill performance evaluation in teaching tennis in elementary school contexts, few studies have investigated teachers’ instructional experiences. The purpose of this study was to explore difficulties and solutions for teaching tennis in elementary school physical education. A male health and physical education licensed teacher who had 13 years of teaching experience participated in the study. He had no prior experience in teaching tennis. The teacher taught 7 tennis lessons to a 6th–grade class (n = 25). The data sources were survey responses completed by children and the teacher’s interview responses. Children completed the survey after the 2nd, 4th, and 6th lessons. The survey consisted of 15 items: four relating to tennis skills and 11 relating to children’s feelings that emerged during lessons. The survey data were analyzed using a non–parametric statistic, the Friedman test, to compare the data in each lesson. The interviews were held after each lesson, which lasted 2–15 minutes, and at the conclusion of the unit, which lasted approximately 54 minutes. The data were analyzed through an open coding method.
　The major findings were as follows. At the beginning of the unit, the teacher found difficulties with pairing children and managing the impacts of the class atmosphere and children’s interpersonal relationships on their learning. The solution for this was not only teaching children how to develop interpersonal relationships but also managing the class effectively by rotating their partners in practice tasks. Another solution was to provide engaging learning materials that minimized the emphasis on interpersonal relationships. Toward the end of the unit, children showed boredom due to the simple skill of striking in tennis (ground stroke). Also, the teacher struggled to shift the learning goal from maintaining rallies to breaking rallies to meet the children’s skill development and needs. The solution for this difficulty was not only preparing a variety of learning materials but also the teacher’s decision–making process based on the children’s needs by managing rules in play, task goals, task design, and time allocation.

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This paper is a review of the book “Sportification of Chinese martial arts: Diffusion in Japan and decline of practical combat effectiveness”, authored by Liu Chang and published by Waseda University Press in June 2023. The distinctive features of this book lie in the following 3 points: 1) It explores the histories of Chinese martial arts or Wushu in both China and Japan regarding Wushu Taolu and its development as a competitive form; 2) It introduces the concept of practical combat effectiveness or bujutsusei and treats it as the basis for evaluating the competitive nature of Chinese martial arts; 3) It clarifies the international development of Chinese martial arts. The book is structured into 6 chapters, thoroughly analyzing various aspects such as the historical evolution of Chinese martial arts, the process of sportification, reception and dissemination in Japan, and contemporary international developments. The concluding chapters offer insights into the future of Chinese martial arts, emphasizing diversity as a vital source of its vitality.

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This study conducted a scoping review to clarify the outcomes and issues in martial arts intervention studies for Autism Spectrum Disorders（ASD）.
Methods：This study followed the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews（PRISMA-ScR）to collect andselect articles. Searches were conducted using PubMed and Science Direct databases, using terms such as “martial arts” and “Autism”. The collected literature was screened according to eligibility criteria and the quality of the studies was assessed using the PEDro scale.
Results：In the end, 22 articles were selected, showing multifaceted effects on the improvement of ASD coresymptoms, socio-emotional functions, cognitive functions, physical functions, and lifestyle. On the other hand,research gaps were identified regarding study areas, subjects, and methods.
Conclusion：Additional high-quality intervention studies and meta-analyses are needed to clarify thetherapeutic significance of martial arts.

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Purpose: To our knowledge, there is no systematic review of swimming and aquatic exercise intervention studies for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit⁄Hyperactivity Disorder (AD⁄HD). Therefore, we conducted a scoping review of swimming and aquatic exercise intervention studies for ASD and AD⁄HD with the aim of identifying outcomes and issues in previous studies. Methods: This study was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMAScR), and articles were collected and selected. We used PubMed, Science Direct, J–STAGE and CiNii Research as databases. Searches were conducted using terms such as “swimming” “Autism” and “AD⁄HD”. The collected literature was selected according to eligibility criteria, and the quality of the studies was evaluated using the PEDro scale.
Results: Finally, 40 articles were selected and analyzed for (1) study areas and publication date, (2) sample size and participant profile, (3) study design and quality, and (4) intervention and measurement methods. The results showed that, despite challenges in the field, size, and quality of the study, ASD and AD⁄HD symptoms improved and multifaceted effects on physical, cognitive, and socio–emotional development were observed. Conclusion: The scoping review clarified the achievements and issues of previous studies and indicated the therapeutic significance of swimming and aquatic exercise for ASD and AD⁄HD.

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