SHIGAKU ZASSHI

The Zoroastrianism is based on the dualism of Good and Evil, which devides everything into two opposing groups. One peculiar character of the Zoroastrian religious life has attracted many observers' attention in history. That is their hostile attitude towards some kinds of animals called xrafstras, such as serpents, scorpions, beasts of prey, insects and worms. Most people in the world would not like these creatures. But the Zoroastrians not only detest or kill these creatures, but also they consider the killing them to be meritorious acts, though the death is treated to belong to the Evil Spirit. The main purpose of this article is examining how xrafstras have been understood in history, what are xrafstras and why they are considered to be xrafstras. The natures of xrafstras are as belows ; first they are injurious to the human beings and the cattle. Second they are harmful to the corn. Third they have ugly and abominable shapes. Fourth they are related to the impurity, fifth they eat unclean food, and sixth they like darkness and have nocturnal natures. Lastly they bring in impurity to the pure creation of Ahura Mazda, such as water and earth. All xrafstras have one or a few of these natures. Through examining the natures of xrafstras, it became evident that the Zoroastrian attitude towards xrafstras reflects the very core of the Zoroastrian cosmology and theology.

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In this paper the author attempts to study the method and historical development of reporting to the Emperor under the ritsuryo-system (the ancient Japanese law system). Details about ronso and soji, the important formal ways of reporting to the Emperor provided for in the "Kushiki-ryo" (the formalities law), have already been explained quite adequately by former studies, but the way of reporting not provided for in the "Kushiki-ryo" has been studied very little. According to the author's view, the way of reporting not provided for in the "Kushiki-ryo" had already appeared in the 8th century. Ministers of the Dajokan (the ancient cabinet) asked the Emperor to see reports presented from various bureaus and thereby gained the Emperor's decision almost every day. This method continued until the early 10th century. The author explains this method in detail and especially refers to problems related to form called Dajokan-pu (the cabinet's order). In the 9th century the way of reporting not provided for in the "Kushiki-ryo" became very dignified, and it was called Kanso. In the middle of the Heian era Kanso was performed with complex ceremonies, and finally Kanso was applied only to the case of the Zuryo's (provincial governor's) personal affairs. But so much stress was laid on the Zuryo's personal affairs, that Kanso was regarded as a very important execution. Consequently, the execution of Kanso became more and more rare ; and ordinary items came to be reported to the Emperor by a simplified Kanso, a much different form from the original Kanso.

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